Decision Making: Research Abstract

Coscarelli, W.C., (1983). Development of a Decision-Making Inventory to Assess Johnson's Decision-Making Styles. Journal of Measurement and Evaluation, 16 (3) 149-60. Johnson's theory suggests that information can be gathered in a spontaneous or systematic way and analyzed internally or externally. Five characteristics, goal orientation, selecting among alternatives, thinking patterns, speed of commitment to new ideas and reaction to events are used to differentiate between spontaneous and systematic dimensions of gathering information. In information analysis, external persons think out loud about opportunities while internal persons use private processing of information before speaking. The theory also points out that individuals can adapt behaviors associated with another style. The theory has been used in helping people make use of their preferred styles in decision making and to understand individual differences. The authors report development of a decision-making inventory (DMI) developed by Johnson and tested for validity and reliability, characteristics were found to be stable. The study confirmed a distinct rank ordering of decision-making styles. Systematic individuals predominate over spontaneous individuals. The DMI assessment agrees with self-report on decision-making style.

Dybdal, L., Sondag, K. A., (2000). Developing Decision Making Skills through the use of Critical Incidents. Journal of Health Education, March/April. The authors' discuss a teaching technique focused on development of good decision-making skills. The technique takes students through the steps of the decision making model. These steps are, describing problem, checking influences, identifying alternatives, checking risks and consequences, decision action and evaluation. The technique advocates use of pre-written scenarios and worksheets as teaching aids. Factors that influence decision-making among the youth are listed and students are expected to react to them depending on the critical incident they are dealing with. The activities require knowledge of process and skills like healthful living. It is therefore, important that critical thinking and decision making activities be based in knowledge of content.

Elias M.J., Tobias, S.E., (1990). Problem Solving/Decision Making for Social and Academic Success. Washington D.C. U.S.A. National Education Association of the United States. The authors discuss the need for students to have decision-making and problem solving skills for clear thinking that leads to positive behaviors, peer relationships and incentive to use school as a place of learning. They give the skills needed as ability to understand signs of one's and others' feelings, deciding on one's goals, thinking of short and long term consequences, readiness to learn self control, building social skills and social awareness. The skills also involve guidance in applying the skills in academic and interpersonal situations in a daily school day. The authors say that " Learning social decision-making and problem-solving is a developmental right of all children; systematic instruction in those skills-particularly beginning in the early grades- is of equal relevance to children's future in a social world as is instruction in 'traditional' academic skills. Instructional procedures and activities should emphasize use of the skills and concepts learned in the classroom in daily academic and social contexts or applying learning to 'real life'.

Ganzel, A.K., (1999). Adolescent Decision Making: The influence of Mood, Age and Gender on the Consideration of Information. Journal of Adolescent Research, 14(3). The authors note that many studies have focused on cognitive aspects of decision-making without much attention to affective influences in decision-making. A review of adult literature shows that emotions play a significant role in judgment and decision-making processes and some of these emotions could be possible factors in adolescent decision-making. The author notes a lack of empirical evidence on impact of emotion on adolescents' decision making. Studies on changes in decision skills with age in adolescents are also contradictory. Some findings say that skills mature with age while others say there is no difference between middle and senior high school students. Future research should focus on how mood affects the decision process in adolescents.

Gregan-Paxton, J., John, D.B., (1995). AreYoung Children Adaptive Decision Makers? A Study of Age differences in Information Search Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(4). Although children constitute a major consumer market, there is little understanding of how they make choices. Basic knowledge on children decision-making is lacking, that is, when and how do skills emerge; when and how are skills adapted across different decision making environments. The authors explored emergence of adaptivity in decision making skills of young children and focused their study on predecisional research. Their findings indicate that ability to adapt information can be observed in preschool years. There is an acknowledgement of the need to change search patterns according to parameters in the choice setting or cost-benefit trade offs, that is, high benefits-low costs and vice versa. However, search strategies are not fully developed and emerge only under facilitative conditions. Grade school children adopt a wide range of search strategies and use them in different tasks. More research is needed on pre-decisional search strategies to find out why young children are not as adaptive as older children. The authors finally point out that training young children in decision-making skills is relevant and that general rules can be taught.

Hartoonian, H.M., Laughlin, M. (1986). Decision Making Skills. The Elementary Economist, 8(1).
The authors list five basic categories in the decision-making process. These skills are based on a background of making economic decisions. These are, expanding conceptual framework (description of problem), understanding sequence, developing alternative sequences, evaluating alternatives and implementing decision. The authors point out that when teachers use decision-making skills in situations facing elementary students, the teachers will understand better how the process works and how it relates to students.

McMoris, T. (1999). Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Decision-making skills. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30(2). The authors looked at the effect of cognitive development on acquiring of decision-making skills in sport. They point out that little research has been done overall in adult decision-making and on how chronological differences affect decision-making. Information on the optimal time of teaching and the critical period of learning decision-making skills is also lacking. The authors however, point out that practice increases performance in decision-making. The latter is also dependent on genetic potential and environmental influences and cannot be isolated from motor skills and physiological development.

Nelson, G. D., (1984). Assessment of Health Decision Making Skills of Adolescents. U.S. Department of Education. National Institute of Education. The author notes an absence of measurement tools based on theoretically sound decision making models. He also notes lack of information on how to measure decision-making skills. The author defines decision-making as an intellectual process leading to response to circumstances through selection among alternatives. Process refers to identifying a problem and eventually finding a solution. The quality of the process determines quality of decision made. Efforts should be made to find out what young people consider in making health decisions to eventually come up with an instrument that can optimally identify proficiency in skills. He conducted a study to develop an instrument to assess decision-making skills. His findings state that decision-making skills can be defined and measured. The author summarizes the common elements of the decision making model as defining decision, identifying a range of solutions, evaluating alternatives, evaluating source credibility, evaluating accuracy of information, determining ownership of the problem, maintaining position when challenged, reviewing the decision process, accepting consequences of the decision process and justifying decision.

Ochoa-Becker, A.S., (1999). Decision Making in Social Studies: An Imperative for Youth and Democracy, 72 (6) pp 337-340. The author discusses learning in social studies and addresses three matters critical to decision making in middle school students. They are nature of the learners, strengthening of democracy, socialization and counter-socialization. She says that decision-making is based on ability to ask good probing questions. Use of real life stories and role plays engages young people in fruitful dialogue whereby decision-making skills are included in regular teaching. The Engel-Ochoa Decision-Making Model is highlighted. It has five questions considered helpful in leading students to thinking at higher levels. The questions are definitional, speculative, analytical, evidence and justification.

Picklesimer, B.K., Hooper, D. R., Ginter, E. J., (1998). Life Skills, Adolescents and Career Choices. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 20(3), pp272-282. The authors investigated differences between Life Skills Development Inventory Form subscales and high school seniors post secondary career plans. No differences were observed between problem solving and decision making subscale. Life skills were found to play a significant role in career choice. Life skills can be used to intervene implying that building life skills before problems are encountered give individuals ability to deal with developmental related issues. An approach that links life skills training to client needs promises more developmental gains. Life skills can be learned by modifying client environment and /or competence building.

Popple, P., Johnson, J. (1986) It Is Up To me. The Elementary Economist, 8(1). The authors say that primary school age children are faced daily with issues of unlimited wants and limited resources. Scarcity requires decisions or choices in all aspects of life. Decision-making skills can therefore, help students make wise decisions. The authors discuss use of every day experience to teach decision-making skills. Some of the experiences through which decision-making skills can be taught are, sharing of scarce resources, dreams versus reality and group problem solving.

Schlichter, C.L., (1981). Decision Making: An Instructional Strategy for the Rural Gifted Student. U.S. Department of Education. National Institute of Education. Early writing on decision-making appeared in psychological research. Recent literature focuses on use of decision-making skills in curriculum development and instruction. Decision-making is defined by four student behaviors: identifying alternatives, evaluation, selection and reason for choice. Choosing is regarded as act while considering possible choices makes decision-making. Training in decision-making is said to help young people gain control of their lives and develop personal identity. Students involved in decision making develop a positive attitude toward school, interact better with peers, work without supervision compared to students whose teachers make all the decisions. Involving students in decision-making is seen to increase commitment to learning. A teaching decision making guideline is to choose issues, which engage students' affective skills (interests and emotions). There is also a suggestion to use everyday problems or real life situations to engage students in problem solving. Instructional strategies, which involve decision-making skills, are found to be useful in addressing needs and abilities of rural gifted youth.

Schvaneveldt, J.D., Adams G. R., 1983. Adolescents and the Decision Making Process. Theory into Practice, 22 (2). The authors note adolescence as a time of limited experience in decision-making. It is also not clear how formal education; activities like scouts, religious affiliations and other youth activities for social and personal development, contribute to adolescent decision-making skills. The paper examines amount and types of decision-making activities available and used by adolescents and their effectiveness. Strategies employed in making of decisions depend on age, situation and opportunities related to the event. Reference groups like parents, siblings, peers and school contribute a lot to process and outcome of decisions.

Trammell, A., Hausler, J., (1986). How do I Choose? The Elementary Economist, 8(1). Decision-making is easier when children are taught skills, which are useful in making 'big' and 'small' decisions that help children derive satisfaction from their decisions. The authors note that decision-making skills learned by children are carried into the future. Decision making skills can be taught through role-play, reasoning, group discussion, observation and sharing experiences. These activities help the children realize the influence of others (parents, siblings, friends) in their decisions.